After the dismemberment of the native Indus culture the new Aryan culture gained prominence in India from 1500 B.C onwards. The fresh cultural traits introduced by the emigrants were known as Vedic culture. Waves after waves of the Aryans penetrated into India from Central Asia and began to lead a settled life in India after 1500 B.C. Scholars like Filippo Sasetti, Max Muller, William Jones and others on philological grounds treated those people, who hailed from a common language group, as people from central Asia.

Though it is accepted that the Aryans were people originally belonging to Central Asia various scholars have propounded many other theories. Though they were not accepted it becomes a must to know them. While Dayanda Saraswathi has suggested a Tibetan origin, B.G. Thilak has mentioned that they were people belonging to the Arctic region. Ganganath Jha is of the opinion that they were people of the native Sapta Sindhu region. The Boghaz-koi inscription found at Cilica in Asia Minor, datable to 1400 B.C. contains the names of Indian gods such as Mitra, Indra and Varuna. From these references it could be inferred that the Aryans should have migrated into India through Iran. The Aryans were also familiar in using grey were painted potteries which were used by Indians during 1100 B.C. So it will be apt to approve the views of Max Muller who has pointed out that the Aryan culture prevailed in India between 1200 and 600 B.C.

Vedic Literature

Among the contributions of the Aryans, the literature is the significant one. It is accepted that all the literature of the vedic period emerged after 1700 B.C. Vedas, which are ever lasting, mean the knowledge of high order. They are known for their purity and divine Qualities. So they are hailed as “Shurutis”. As it is believed that they are not the works of men, they are known as “apaurshya”. The Vedas are called Samhitas. After the four Vedas, the Brahmanas, Upanishads, Aranyakas and Sutras emerged in the subsequent periods.

The Vedas

The Vedas are four in number. 1. Rig Veda, the earliest one contains 1017 hymns and written in 10 mandalas during 1700 B.C. The hymns are written in the form of invocations. The 10th mandala called Purusha Sukta contains references about caste. Gayatri mantras are also included in it. 2. The Sama Veda emerged from the term sama, meaning melody. So Samaveda is having hymns of melodies. There are 1549 hymns in it. These hymns are written at the time of the execution of Soma sacrifices, which were carried out by udgatri Brahmins. This veda reveals the fascination of the Aryans towards music. 3. Yajur Veda is a look on sacrificial prayers and mantras. It is divided into white and black yajur Vedas. This veda contains details about the sacrifices such as Rajasuya and Vajbheya sacrifices. 4. Atharva Veda, containing magical formulas, is in 20 looks. They are employed to keep away evil practices and desires. As this work is supposed to be written by non-aryans no status of Vedas is assigned to it. It exposes the superstitious beliefs of that period. It consists of 711 hymns.

The later vedic works

During the course of time after the Vedas many other literary works on religious backgrounds emerged. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Sutras and Dharsanas are the later additions.

The Brahmanas

They came up during the period of transition. They render the meanings of different sacrifices and point out the ways and means by which the sacrifices are conducted. They contain details about rituals. Artieya, Kausitaki, Tandyamaha, Sadvinsys, Jaiminya, Taittreys, Gopatha, Sathapatha Brahmanas are significant in them. The priest hood and prayers are also expressed by tehm.

The Aranyakas

The Sages wrote them in the forests. Hence they are called Aranyakas. They are concluding portions or appendices of the Brahmanas. They refer to mysticism and philosophy. They offer stress to symbolism. Meditations are also given importance to them.

Upanishads

Upanishads are the sacred and secret knowledge offered by the Gurus to their disciples. They from the basis for the philosophic ideas of the future. They offer importance to universal soul, individual self and wonders of nature. They were written during the period between 800 B.C and 500 B.C. The sages of that age, through these works, insisted that the world is god, who is the soul. They express the doctrines of life. They form the basis for the theory of Karma and transmigration of soul. They are called Vedantas or end part of the Vedas. There are 108 upanishads. Kausitaki, Taittireya, Aitereya, Kena, Kata, Isa, Brihadaranyaka, Upanishads are the earliest ones.

Vedangas and Sutras

The vedangas are six in number. The Siksha (phonetic), Kalpa (rituals), Vyakarna (grammer). Nirukta (etymology), Chanda (metre) and Jyothisa (astronomy) are the vedangas. They are specific about the particular areas.

They are three Sutras. The Srauta, Grihya and Dharama Sutras are the three, The first one deals with sacrificial rituals. The second one mention about the ceremonies and sacrifices executed by the house holders. The laws, customs and manners of the people are narrated in the Dharma sutras. They serve as basis for austre life. All the sutras are in prose order.

Dharsanas

The dharsanas are six in number. The Nyaya dharsana by Gautam points out that logic is the basis for knowledge. They exhibit the faith and belief over god. The Vaishesika Dharsana by Kannada Rishi deals with wealth, quality, activity, generality, particularity and inference. Kapila was the founder of the Sankya philosophy. It refers to the Satvaguna, Rakshashaguna and Dhamasaguna of individual human beings. Patanjali brought out the yogadharsana, which refers to the concentration of mind. It informs that by adopting Dhayana or Samadhi one could achieve a promoted spiritual life. Purvamimamsa of Jaimini refers to rituals and Nitys and Kamya Karmas. They show the path towards the promotion of life with ethical codes. Bhadrayana by his Uttaramimamsa has described the relation between individual souls and man’s attitude towards worldly life. It also shows the path to gain vidhya. It discusses life after death.

Thus the vedic literature serve as preachings for the way of life. They formed the basis for future Indian philosophy. They even exhibit the religious sentiments and attitudes of the people. They revealed the purpose of life in this world. They exhibit the matured wisdom of the workers.

Social condition

The social condition of the vedic age was a systematised and appreciable one.

Family

Family was the basis unit in the society. It was known as kula of griha. Father called ‘kulapathy’ or ‘grihapathy’ was the head of the family. Joint family system was in vogue. Importance was assigned to hospitality. The guest called ‘Athithi’ was welcome by all. After the father the family was under the custody of the eldest son. The panchamahayagnya or the five fold duties were insisted.

Caste

Varna system was popular during that period. As the Aryans were fair in colour and complex they were different from the native dark coloured people. The colours formed the basis for social disparities and grades in the society. The Aryans treated the black coloured natives as dasas or dasyus or shudras. They were classified as fourt set of people during the vedic age, Warriors, priests and other common people were the other earliest divisions. The Purushashukta of the Riqveda mentions about Brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras. The first two were privileged classes and were and at the top of the social ladder. Such variations led to the spread of caste system in India. Further changes were introduced gradually on the basis of their profession and occupation. Many classes and sub-castes emerged during that period Many sub-castes and separate classes came up subsequently. There were separate professionals such as Karmara (blacksmith), Tashta (carpenter), Charamamana (farmer) Kulala (potter), Vapta (larber). etc. Rathakara or the chariot maker was the most privileged one among them. The Brahmanas and Upanishads also refer to the availability of Varnashrama dharma.

During the later vedic period also the Chathurvarna system continued. The position of the Brahmins became a more pronounced one due to the exorbitant enhancement in the sacrificial rituals. They were venerated even at time of festivals and agricultural operations. The Brahmins prayed for the welfare and well being of their patrons. The Brahmins and Kshatriyas were united in administering the two lower sets of people. The Vaisyas, the prominent tax payers suffered much. The Kshatriyas or Rajanyas lived on the basis of the income such as tributes. The other castes except Brahmins were subservient to the Kshatriyas. The high caste people had the right to celebrate the Upanayana ceremony. They enjoyed the right of wearing sacred thread called mupprinul . The later vedic age witnessed the outcome of the gotra of the gotra system and that introduced changes in the institution called marriage.

Marriages

The highly venerated and organised patriarchal society offered significance to monogamy. Polygamy prevailed in the royal families. Child marriage and polyandry were unknown. During the vedic age marriageable age was fixed between 16 and 17. Dowry system was absent. The marriages between father and daughter, brother and sister were forbidden. Greater veneration was given to married women. If a widow had no issue she was allowed to remarry. An issueless widow can get an issue through the brother of her dead husband. That was called niyoga marriage. Panigrahana was ceremonial ritual associated with marriages. Saptapadi and circumambulation of fire by the married couple were undertaken. Marriage within the gotra i.e. anuloma marriage and the marriage outside the gotra i.e., pratiloma marriages were common. Purdah system and prostitution were available then.

Women

Monogamy was common and polyandry was not in practices. Such facts reveal the superior nature of women of that period. The absence of child marriage too will substantiate it. The women were under the custody of male members. More rights and privileges were enjoyed by them. They played their role in the conduct of sacrifices and delebrations of the assemblies. Sati was prevalent in the early vedic age. During the later vedic period they had no political powers. Gradually their status began to decline. They began to attain a subordinate position of women. Female issues were not liked. Women education was appreciated. Ghosa, Lopamudra, Apala, Viswavarga were the scholars of the vedic period. Garji and Maitreyi were also women scholars.

Education

Aryans were learned scholars. They offered venaration for wisdom and knowledge. Knowledge was transferred to others by verbal and oral communication. Education commenced with the initiation ceremony called ‘upanayana’. Residential schools were familiar. Knowledge of Vedas and philosophies were popular. Astronomy, military science, Brahmma vidhya, ethics, dialectics were the popular subjects of that age. The charakas were wandering teachers. Yoga, medicine and knowledge of asterisms were also familiar.

Slaves

The native people were called as dasas or dasyus by the Aryans. Their position was equal to slavery. They were the gifts of priests and rich people. Women slaves were also there. They were used for carrying out household activities. They were employed in agricultural activities also.

Residences

The vedic Aryans’ residences were not at all appreciable. They lived in huts constructed with the use of mud and brick. Thatched sheds were also there. Wood cottages were available. The houses were big enough to accommodate the huge members of the family with the cattles and domesticated animals. The houses had rooms. Pillars and beams were all used. The structure of the residences were very poor.

Food

Yava and grain porridges, cakes of rice and barley mixed with ghee were used. Milk and its by products were commonly used. Green were cooked with milk. They drank Soma and Sura drinks. During the later vedic period vegetables, fruits, barley, rice, milk etc., formed the major items of food. Ceremonial feasts were quite common. Non-vegetarian items such as flesh of oxen and mutton were consumed. Unbroken grain, ground grain, fried grain, boiled rice, milk rice, rice mixed with milk and honey were also items of food.

Dress

Different kinds of dresses were used by the vedic Aryans, Uttariya, and anatariya were the upper and lower governments respectively. Both men and women used the same kind of dresses. They used coloured and embroidered cloths.

Ornaments

Ornaments were used by men and women. Necklaces, bracelets, anklets, kundalas were all used. They applied oil to the hair. Shaving was common among men. They used shoes, razors, mirrors etc.

Health

Importance was assigned to health and hygiene. They believed that magical chant will protect them from diseases. They, on that line, chanted specific mantras. Magical spells were also in vogue. To avoid diseases and to avoid anti poisonous elements they used specific measures. They used certain rites for safe deliveries for women. Personal hygiene was given significance. They had faith and beliefs over gods for relief from diseases.

Entertainments

Horse racing, chariot racing, dance and music were familiar entertainments. Both men and women were found of entertainments. Lute, drum, vina, flute, harp were the prominent musical instruments of the period. Gambling was also in practice.

Disposal of the dead At the initial stage they followed burial. In due course cremation crept in

Animals

The Aryans were pastoralists and semi-nomadic people. Cattle reating was common. Cow was treated as a precious and sacred animal. It was also treated as a measure of exchange. Horse is praised in the Rig vedic hymns. The horses were engaged to draw the war chariots. Elephant was familiar. Lions and tigers were known to them. The girls were associated with snakes.

Political condition

King Monarchy was the general order to the Aryans. The tribal chief was a war lord. The Monarch’s position was an appreciable one. He was called Rajan. Kingship was hereditary. He was called Gopa Janasya because he protected people and cattle at times of war and peace. He was known as puram Bhetta or sacker of cities. He was called bali hrit or taxes. He was the highest court of appeal. He was beyond punishments or adhanda. He was the chief executive of the state. He was equated with gods such as Mitra. Indra and Varuna due to his virtues, valour and kindness. He was assisted by Purohit and council of ministers. The commander-in-chief was called Senani. Upasti and Ibhya were the personal attendants of the king. The ganas of non-monarchical states were under the control of the Ganapathi.

Administration

Purohita, the source of inspiration for the kings was the chief functionary of the state. Senani was an expert in war and in handling weapons. No details are available about judicial officials. There were territorial officials also. Vrajapati was in charge of pasture grouds. The villages were under the control of the gramanis. No specific civil systems were available. No regular standing army was available them.

Assemblies

Sabha and samithi were the two popular assemblies of the vedic age. Sabha was the body of elders. Samithi comprised of members of the entire tribe. The member of the Sabha Saha. The members of the Samithi were called ‘vishayah’. Vidhadha wa sthe religious assembly. The two assemblies functioned effectively with the assistance and support of the other.

During the later vedic period the assemblies had lost their value. Vidhadha had already disappeared. Only the chiefs and nobles occupied significant roles in the Sabha and Samithi. The position and status of kings were exalted. The terms such as Raja. Samrat, Svarat, Ekrat, Virat and Sarvarat will testify to the superior nature of the kings of the later vedic age. Their territorial possessions enhanced. The kings became absolute rulers, Number of sacrifices increased. Rajasuya sacrifices also was executed. ‘Kingship knows no kinship’ was the general order of the day. The Mantriparishad became more popular and occupied the power of Sabha and Samithi. Bhagaduga was the tax collector. Thw money collected was kept under the control of officials called ‘Sangrihitri’. The queen was called mahishi. The forests and games were maintained by the official called govikartana. There were spies who were called ‘Spasanas’. The kings became the renders of justice. Shatadaya was the fine issued. Servere punishments were not at all available. Whipping was a common punishment. Fire and water ordeals were adopted to find out the culprits.

Thus the political condition was a developed one during the vedic and later vedic ages.

Religious condition

The Aryans had their own religious sentiments. Their religion was a simple one. The natural forces were personified and worshipped by them. They worshipped the gods in the form of animal and human beings. Uncontrolled and ununderstandable natural forces were “invested with divinity and were personified as male and female gods. The prithivisthana (terrestrial), antari karthana (atmospheric) and dyasthana (celestial) gods were workshipped. It was a customary practice among them to invoke various gods for their prosperity.

Indra was worshipped as breaker of forts and also for his power and strength. He was treated as an efficient car warrior or ratheshta. He was also considered as a winner or Jitendra and drinker of Soma. He is hailed in 250 hymns. He was hailed as the god of thunder, storm and rain. Vajra or thunderbolt was his weapon. He is hailed as the one having hundreds of powers.

Agni, the fire god is places next to Indra. He is hailed in 200 hymns. The primitive aryans gave greater veneration to agni because of the power possessed by agni. His assistance in cooking and burning forests are venerated. He is placed in between god and man. He is associated with many sacrificial rituals. The oblations offered to agni will reach the gods through the smoke.

Varuna is appreciated as the upholder of the natural order. In that respect he is hailed as ‘rta’. It is believed that he regulated all the activities of nature as well as Sun. He was venerated as the god of morality, water, cloud, oceans and rivers.

Soma is treated as the lord of intoxicating juice soma. Maruti occupied the place of a personified storm. Usha is treated as a beautiful rosy dawn. Aliti was a female deity.

The Aryans attached greater importance to sacrifices, rituals and ceremonies. The gods were invoked and prayers were offered to them. The prayers were offered individually as well as collectively. The tribes and clans had their own religions. Their religious faiths were based on beliefs and faiths. During the early vedic period ghee, grains, barley, vegetables were granted to the deities through sacrificial offerings. During the later vedic period animal sacrifices gained veneration. They believed that by uttering specific formulas they can gain children, cattle, food and prosperity. Propitiation and persuasion were popular. They had the faith over the sacrifices and believed that gods unseen will offer their grace in large quantities. They offered venerations to god for gaining spititual uplift. They believed that sorrows and nurseries could be removed by constant prayers and worship.

The later vedic period witnessed the completion of the compilation of vedic literature. Prajapati the creator, Vishnu, the protector and preserver Ruddra, the god of animals became popular during that period. Gods like Indra and Agni lost their significance. The worship of symbols became popular and they paved the way for the introduction of images and idols. Offerings and sacrifices continued. Many new rituals and ceremonies emerged. The animal sacrificer was called ‘yajamana’. The guests were offered feasts with non-vegetarian dishes. The uttering and chanting of specific mantras during particular sacrifices became popular. The employment of Brahmin priests to carry out sacrificial rituals was a common feature. Non-Aryan rituals also attained prominence.

The vague idea of transmigration of soul came into existence during the age of Upanishads. The theory of karma also found its origin. Asceticism became popular. The idea of polytheism and Sanskrit language gained widened popularity at a later date.

Vedic Culture