The Vijayanagar rulers were defenders of Hinduism in South India and they were known as protectors of “Varnashrama Dharama”. They stood for unity and solidarity among the different castes of Hinduism. The arrival of the Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese. Portuguese and others has cause a cultural syunthesis. Lot of inscriptions, foreign accounts offer us details about the Vijayanagar rule.

The Society

The society was still a caste oriented one. The population comprised of organised castes. The castes were based on occupations. With the continuation of old traditional castes new castes also emerged. It was mainly due to the schism between the Hindus and Muslims. The wars economic priorities and other casues led to the migration of the people from one region to the other. When they adjusted themselves with the new situation new ideas came into vogue. The movement of the Telugus, Kannadigas were mainly responsible for social changes. The attitude and behaviour of the Vijayanagar rulers also were responsible for social changes. The rulers were not interested in overruling the majority views of the people. Importance was also assigned to public opinion.

Brahmins

The position and status of the Brahmins was an exalted one. They were beyond harsh punishments due to their wisdom and knowledge. They were enjoying key positions in the adminstration also. They had their hold even in the military sphere. They were given venerable positions by the rulers. “The Brahmanas are the honest and most esteemed nation among the Indian Heathens for they do always serve in the chiefest places about the king as receivers, stewards, ambassadors and such like places” (linschoten). As pointed out Paes they even served in the army. Their life was a pious one and they executed their priestly and religious duties effectively. They had a sound knowledge Vedas and Sastras. Nuniz has observed that there were Brahmins residing in the palace itself. They served as Dalavoys and diplomats. Govinda Dikshit and Nilakanta Dikshit served in the courts of Tanjore and Madura respectively. They had their role in the judicial administration also. Barbossa has accused them as people who led an easy going life without doing any work. Among them there were the Smarthas. i.e., the worshippers of Siva and Srivaishnavas who worshipped Vishnu. The Lowgiha Brahmins engaged in political activities and worldly affairs and Vaidiga Brahmins carried out religious rituals. They were wearing the sacred thread. During the reign period of Krishna Devaraya they were occupying the key position in the administration. The Brahma bandhus and Tambalar who worshipped Siva and officiated as priests in the Siva temples wre not given equal recognition with other Brahmins.

Due to the spread of Ramanuja’s Vaishnavism, the Vaishnavities attained a renowned place. Both the Saivites and Vaishnavites devoted much attention to the creation and preservation of mutts. The Brahmins also were estate owners because of the lands granted to them by the rulers and nobles. They had their holdings in the form of agraharas and manyas. The Mahajanas were Brahmins who dealt with legal documents. They were mostly employed in dealing with the Dharmasasanas. The educateda Brahmins, known as Nyogis were serving in the administration only very limited number of Brahmins were engaged in trade and commence. There were specific set of people who rendered various social and religious services to the community and they earned theru livelihood by their services. The Brahmins were known for their simple way of life. They had only few need. They adopted the policy of monogamy. They even served as Raja gurus.

Kshatriyas

The Kshatriyas were flourishing and popular. They were mostly rulers and warring class. The members of the Sangama. Saluva and Tuluva and Aravindu dynasties claimed as people hailed from lunar clan. None of them have talked about their origin from the Agnikula.

Vaisyas

The vaisyas were people of the trading community. The komutis of the Telugu and Canarese regions claimed themselves ad Vaisyas. The Beris were popular merchant community of the Tamil country. But the Komutis did not recongnise them asvaisyas. The Lingayats were also skillful traders. The Balijas and Baiyas wre also traders.

Sundras

It was a community which had many heterogeneous groups among them. Agriculture was their main occupation. The Reddis, Vakkaligar, Vellalas were the people who were engaged in agriculture. They were the backbone of the society. The prosperity and richness of the society depended upon them. The Kammas and eVelamas of the Telugu country too were military chiefs but engaged in agricultural pursuits also. Their leaders were known as amaranayakas.

Others

The kurumbas, gollas idaiyans, barbers, dommaras, washermen were other professionals and they had the tradition of marrying within the community. Every community was keen on maintaining its own status. There were a set of Brahmin jugglars and they were called by name Vipravinodhin. They were particular in maintaing their social status.

Artisans

The Panchalas were the artisans of that period. They were also called pancha kammalas. The blacksmiths gold smiths, brass smiths, carpenters and idol makers form this group. They too had their own quarrels among themselves. They devoted much attention to preserve their social status by utilizing their rights and privileges at public festivals and temples.

The Kaikkolas were the influential community people. They lived in the streets around the temple. They had their role in the temple administration and carrying local taxes. They were mostly weavers. During the reign period of Sadasivaraya, the barber’s position was an aaffluent one. They were exempted from certain taxes. The Chandalas were people belonging to the fifth caste. The malas, holeyas and pariahs were agricultural, labourers. They were not allowed to involve in civil and military services. They were criminal tribes of the age. The madigas were unskilled labourers. They were shoe makers.

Marriage

It was the principal institution in the society. It enjoyed both religious sanctity and social apprival. The old eight fold customary marriages did not exist in the Vijayanagar period. Kanyadhana was a familiar marriage ritual. Dowry system was in vogue. Kanya sulka or birde price payment affected the Brahmins to a large extent. Child marriage was popular among the Brahmins. Sati or Sahagamana was also prevalent. In the Kannada districts the availability of Satikkal or mastikkal with inscriptions testify to the existence of Sati. The execution of Sati was commemorated by Satikal or mastikkal.

Women

In general, the women of the rich communities lived a secluded life. They even never participated in the festivals. But the condition of the courteasans was a different one. They lived freely. The girls from rich families were educated. Generally the girls were under the control of the parents. The girls of rich families were taught vernacular languages, Sanskrit, dance, and music. The cultured women were trained in both vocal and instrumental music and dance. The royal women were taught dancing in a particular hall. The female child was treated as a burden to the partents. So they wanted to dispose, them of with marriage. Pre-puberty marriage was common. The parents only selected their in laws. Polygamy prevailed among the royal as well as aristocratic ramilies. Women were fond of winning the favour of the rulers. There were servant maids. Women guards and eunuchs to assist them. The royal women were trained in military activities. Many women went to the battle fields.

The family women were under the control of the husbands. The husbands were treated as the Lords of the wives. She was expected to be a chaste and ideal wife. The courtesan women were generated in the society. The poor parents sold their daughters to the rich courtesans. They were attached to the courts and temples. During Mahanavami festival the courtesans carried out a lot of services in the palaces.

Legalised prostitution existed there. They lived in comfortable houses with all luxuries. Gangadevi, the wife of Kumarakampana. Thirumalamba, Rama chandramaba were learned scholars. Gangadevi wrote the work called Madura Vijayam. Thirumalamba wrote here aaradambika Parinayam and Rudrembha was the authoress of the work Raghunathabiudayam.

Way of life

The upper class led a comfortable and sophisticated life. Spiritualism was popular. The people lived in different kinds of houses according to their economic status and profession. They lived in houses with flat roofs and pillared verandas. There were palaces for the royal families. They were decorated with wooden images and paintings in the walls.

Importance was assigned to the duties by the people. Dharma was recongnised. The people were more hospitable. The kings spent a lot for their dresses. Different sets of people wore specific kinds of dresses. Dhoti and Uttariya were the dresses worn by men. They used even shawls. The farmers were satisfied only with a loin cloth. Well to do farmers used two garments. The women wore saris and cotton cloths. Pavada, paida, ravika were the dresses of women. The women had the hair tightly gathered into a knot of the top of the head.

Both men and women were fond of ornaments. Necklaces, armletsf, anklets nosering etc., were used. For the rich they were made ip of gold. Emerald, diamond rubies and pearls. Padakkam was a common ornament.

The people were accustomed to wear sweet smelling fragrances. Sandalwood camphor musk and saffron were used. Scented flowers were also used. Rose water was commonly used. Theygave importance to the chewing of Tambulam after the meal. In the 16th century it was quite popular.

Rice, wheat grain barley, peans, pulses, horse grain were the food of the people. Rice was the staple food. The reddis were fond of using cholam and ragi. Varieties of vegetables and herbs were in vogue. Meat eating was common Mutton, pork, venison hares doves were eaten. Milk and its by products were used. Mangoes, jack fruit, grapes cucumber plantains etc., were consumed in addition to rice. Intoxicating liquor was also consumed.

Dramas were popular then. Drama stages were also there. Musical consorts were popular. Vocal music was followed by vina, flute, mridanga etc. puppet show was a popular entertainment. Dommaras were acrobats. Chess and dice were other games. Gambling was a fashionable pastime in the aristocratic circle. Women were also addicted Mahamurasam etc were other poplar musical instruments. Hunting the wild animals was another significant pastime.

Economic Condition

Agriculture was the main occupation. The landed employers and labours were there. The Nayaks also were the holders of lands due to their military service. The land of the state was maintained by them for the sake of the kings. In the villages the workers like barber porters, carpenters, astrologers. Physicians etc., lived on the grants of lands assigned to them byway of Manyams. The temples too had their role in the economy of the state. It meet out the conduct of rituals and festivals it was a customary practice among people to make deposits. Such capital amounts were utilisedfor providing with the welfare measures such as irrigation facilities, roads etc. If the credit could not be realised from the debtor their lands were auctioned and sold and the amount was realised.

The agricultural produces such as rice were exported to countries like Arabia. Ormuz Malabar etc. Both internal and foreign trades were popular. Shandies were arranged on week days at different places. The needs of the people were satisfied by local supplies. Because of the abundant nature of production the common people were not interested in importing any thing from the foreign countries. In general self sufficiency was the common feature. In addition to the agricultural industry, mines and metallurgy handicrafts, textiles, fisheries were common. Sugar production was apromising industry. Palm sugar and jaggery were also produced in plenty.

Oil was extracted from raw coconut, gingelly, seasamum and cartor seeds. Dyeing was another significant industry , coir, toddy, mat, brushed etc, were produced. Instead of nails they used coir to the planks. The today tappers also were taxed. Mining industry was also a popular industry. Gold and diamond were taken from mines. Iron was another significant metal. Sculphur and copper mines were also available. Salt was produced on large scales. Salt production and sale were brought under taxation. Silver and ivory works were carried out. The weapons of war were also produced in larger quantities. Copper vessels and utensils were the produces for common use by the people. They were in the form of bowls, tumblers, basins etc.

Handicrafts and wooden furniture adorned the houses. Vehicles of transport bullock carts, palanquins were made of wood. Textile industry was an important one. Cotton and silken cloths were woven. Pilicat was a renowned center of textile manufacture. Fishery gave employment opportunities to many.

Cloves, Cardamom, Cinnamon were imported from Sumatra and other places. Our produces, spices, drugs, metals, pulses, tamarind, wheat, vegetables, pepper were items of trade and export. Well developed transport system strengthened trade and commerce. Calicut, Dabhol, Goa, Mangalore, Cannanore were popular ports in the west coast. Nagapattinam and Pulicut were the ports of the east coast.

Religious condition Vaishnavism was the personal religion of the Vijayanagar rulers. But they did not deviate from the policy of religious toleration. They were patrons of all the religious practices. Bukka I, the founder himself devoted on religious polices. The rivalry between Vira Saivites and Vira Vaishnavites were so acute. Madhavacharya Vidhyaranya was an advaidin. The Vijayanagar rulers encouraged the construction of both Siva and Vishnu temples. There were schisms between Jains and Vaishnavites. The religious policy of the state was announced by an edict by the ruler Bukka1. The Vijayanagar rulers did not either ill treat oppress tehmuslims. Instead of giving importance to passive resistance, they even supported the Muslim religious institutions also.

Among the Vaishnavites the followers of Ramunja were called Sri Vaishnavas and the followers of Madhvacharya were known as Madhvas. Srivaishnavism was patronized by Achuta Raya. Sadasiva Raya and their ministers and officials. The Saivas and Sumarthas too attained rheir reconqnition from the rulers.

The rulers were interested in maintaining unity and solidarity by their policy of religious toleration. Krishnadeva Roya granted full liberty to his subjects to adopy any religion of their like. Along with the construction of many new temples they concentrated on the renovation of old temples. They were mainly responsible for theconstruction of big towers called Roya Gopurams. They constructed a lot of mandapas and Tayar shrines in a almost all the temples. Land gifts were announced to the temples. They adopted the policy of reconciliation between the people of various religious orders. Muslims were allowed to construct mosques and to carryout their religious rites.

The Vishnu temples at Ahobilam, Malkote, Sriperempudur, Srimushnam etc were popular. The Vamana temple at Srirangam was the work of the ruler Sri Ranga. Virupaksha was the famous deity on whom the Vijayanagar rulers had faith and belief. The Samayacharyas played a signigicant role in promoting Vaishnavism. There were frequent religious disputations and discussions. The emperors were much interested in listening to the various religious disputes. The Vijayanagar rulers were known for their religious sentiments and far sighted view points.

The Mutts also played their role in this period too. Almost all the religions had their own mutts. At Sravanabelgola there was a monastery for the Jain monks. A Jain mutt was functioning from Kanchipuram. The Sringeri mutt was a renowned centre. Both Vadakalai and Tenkalai sects were having popular mutts. Udipi Mulbaga and Vijayanagar had Vaishnava mutts. The mutts functioned effectively on the basis of stipulated rules and regulations. The head and administrators were obeyed honestly. The monks and workers were completely under the control of the head. The mutts functioned as centres of learning. Along with the specific religious philosophies secular subjects were also taught. They devoted much attention to art, literature, medicine etc.

The rulers concentracted more on the administration of the temple. Rituals were carried out without any interruption. Every temple had its own treasury called Sri Pandara. The temples had their own deposits. They were spent for promoting the temple and public aactivities. Even lands and assets were purchased. The Dharmasana of the local court met there. The caste meetings were also arranged there. The temples were centres of other social activities also.

Village and folks deities were popular. The daily rituals of those temples were conducted by the taxes collected there. The Mahanavami, the festival associated with Durgha was celebrated in a grand manner. Blood sacrifice was a common feature. Making pilgrimage to holy places was a renowned custom and tradition. Thirthas and holy shrines were popular. Chidambaram, Kalahasthi, Tripathi, Kanchi, Srisailam. Tiruvannamalai. Srirangam, Sangameswar, Mahanandhi, Gokarna, Ramesharam etc., were popular pilgrim centres.

Literature

It was a period of great literary eminence. So many learned scholars devoted much attention to produce various literary works. Sanskrit works and other works on vernacular languages emerged then. The Vijayanagar rulers were interested in promoting literature. They showed no partiality to any language. The literary merits were highly venerated. The religious revival enabled the introduction of many literature. Historical, Semi historical, prabandas and Kavyas emerged during that period. The following were the significant works of that period. Damdamatha, the Jain monk work kuvalayananda. Thirumalamba, a queen of Achutha Raya was the authoress of the work Varadhambika Parinayam. Ramabhadramba wrote the work called Raghunathabhiudayam. Vedanta Desika (1268-1368) was an orthodox Vaishnava Brahmin. Due to his versatility be has produced works in Sanskrit and Tamil. Yadhavabhiyudayam was an epic on Krishna. Hamsa Sandesa, Padukasahasram. Sankalpa Suryodhaya etc., were his works.

Vidhyaranya wrote the works like Anubhuti, prakasika, Aparokshanubuti Dipika. Aitereya Dipika, Taitatriya Dipika, Panchadasi, Sangita Sastra. Sangetha Sudha were his works.

Madhavacharya wrote his works like Parasara Smriti Vyakya. Kalanirnaya, Jivan mukti Viveka. Sayanacharya, the younger brother of Madhavacharya was also a great scholar of eminence. Alankara Sudha Nidhi was his work. Subhasita, Dhatavrittr, Alankara Suddhanidhi. Ayur veda Sudhanidhi. Tattatreyaaranyaka bhasya. Sulka yajur veda. Samhita Bhasya. Atharvaveda samhita Bhasya and Rig veda samhita Bhasya. We proved his versatility by the above wroks.

Virupaksha also called Udayagiri Viruppanna, son of Harihara II was an eminent scholor. Narayani vilasam, a Sanskrit drama was his work. Vallabharaya produced the work called Kridabhiramman. Devaraya II himself was the author of Ratina dipika and Brahmasutravriddhi.

Selva Narasimha was an eminent Sanskrit scholar. Ramabhiudayam was his work. Rajanadha Dindima was the author of Saluvabhiudayam. This is a historical poem. Garudavahana wrote the work on Alwar in the name of Divyasuri charitam.

The period of Krishna Devaraya was a glorious epoch of Sanskrit. Telugu, Kannada and Tamil languages. He himself was a scholor and patron of learned scholars. The Ashtadiggajas adorned his court, Allasani Beddanna. Nandi Thimmanna. Bingali Suranna, Madhaya kari mallanna. Turjadi, Ramabhadran, Bhatten murthi and Tenaliraman were the eight members. There functioned an academy of poets. Vijayanagar was the pilgrim centre of the learned scholars of different parts of the country. Krishnadeva Raya produced the Sanskrit works such as Satya Vadhu Parinaya. Rasa manjari, Jambavati Kalyanam etc., Usha parinayam. Amukhta malayata were his Telugu works.

Allasani Beddanna the Andhra Kavitha Pitamaha wrote his Manucharita. Nandhi Thimmanna produced the work called Parijatha Bharinayam. Turjadi, a Saiva devotee of Krishna devaraya’s court wrote the works like Kalahasthi Mahatmiya. Kalahastiswara Satakam etc. The former one is hailed as one of the Pancha maha Kavyas. Lord Siva is eulogized in a chaste and elegant style. His Krishnadevaraya vijayam is another wonderful exposition. Pingali Suranna was the author of the work Kalapuranodhayam. It refers to a story narrated by Brahmna to his consort Sarasvathi. He was the author of the work Raghava Pandviyam. In this unique work he has employed a technique of expressing the facts from both Ramayana and Mahabharatha. This is also one of the Pancha maha kavyas in Telugu literature. Prabhavati Pratyumnam was also the work by the same author. These work explicitly reveal the creative mind of the author.

Tenali Rama Krishna son of Ramayya was a Vaishnative his udbhataradhya charitam refers to the activities of the Saiva saint Udbhata. Linga purana, panduranga Mahatmiyam. Ghatikachala Mahatmiyam were his other work. He was a popular poet who could write poems spontaneously. They are known for their lucid style.

Ramabhadriah published his work called Ramabhiudayam in Telugu language. It deals with the story of Rama Saka Kathasara Sangraha was his another work. Ramaraja Bhushana alias Bhattumurthi was in the court of Rama raya. Vasu caharitram was the work by him. Narasa Bhupaliyam is also a work written by him. Vemana was a great poet of the 16th century. Untalapudi, Eilaya, Ruddhrayya were the other poets of that age. It was comparable to that of the Periclean age of Athens. The literary movement maintained the prestige of the empire to a larger extent.

During the reign period of Devaraya II, Saint Arunagiri was patronized. Being a Murugan devotee he broughtout his Tiruppugal on Murugan. Saluva Gope Tippa, an officer of Devaraya II was responsible for patronizing Kaui kalamega. Irusamaya Vilakkam by Haridasa is attributed to that period. Many works on religious ideas emerged in Tamil during that period.

In Kannada also a number of works came up. Siddhadeva Bhima Kavi Aradhya Brahman translated the Telugu work Basava Purana into Kannada. Harihara II a renowned Kannada scholor was praised as Karnataka Vidhya vilasa. Bahubali, a Jain poet and monk produced his work Dharmanths. Madhura Madhava, another Jain poet wrote called Dharmanantha Purana.

Mahalingadeva wrote Ekotara Satsthala. Lakshmana Dandanatha produced his Siva Dattuva chintamani. Jakkannaraya was an eminent scholar of Vira Saivism, published the work called Nurodusthala. Kumaravyasa wrote Bharatha in Kannada. Maggalya Maggideva was the author of the Satakas. Chandra kavi produced a work on the Lord Virupaksha of Hampi.

Thus was an age of Renaissance in literature.

Art and Architecture

The art and architecture are the standing monuments of intellectual qualities of the artisans of an age. They stand testimony to the cultural heritage of that region. It was a period which witnessed a developed state of art and architecture. The architecture of this age was known for its unique qualities. They were influenced by the earlier motifs and also by the contemporary Islamic art. They devoted much to the devotional aspects and ritualistic needs. They had their own innovative mind and they produced their own style. The Vijayanagar school of architecture was known for its distinctive and decorative iconographic features.

Temple architecture reached its high water mark and grew extravagantly with distinctions. There was a harmonious blending of old and new ideas. New unitary temples with mandapas, additional shrines and vimanas emerged. Rituals and ceremonial observations increased. Pillared halls, pavilions were included. Amman shrines were constructed in the north werst of the main shrine or just a little behing it. The image of the consort of the presiding deity was installed in it. They introduced the kalyana mandapa in the left side of the main eastern entrance. This feature could be seen in the Jalakandeswara temple located inside the fort at Vellore. The kalyana mandapas the known for their marvelous artistic and sculptural glories. It is used at the time of annual festivals. At Hampi, the ruins of such mandapa could be seen. The Vijayanagar artists devoted much attentipn to perfection, beautification, decoration and enlargement. They were so keen on offeringt a promising position to the temples. The entire temple complexes met with changes. The pillars are added with sculptured glories. The sculptures are complicated strange and glorious. It is every well hailed as a drama in stone. The pillars and mandapas testify to the architectural superiority.

“A very striking type of pillar design is that in which the shaft becomes merely a central core for the attachement of an involved group of statuary. Often heroic size and chiseled entirely in the round, having as itsmostconspicious element a furiously rearing horse, rampant hippogryph or upraised animal of asupernatural king. The second variety is encircling the central column a cluster of miniature pillars, slender mystical and dreamy like gothic nook shafts”. All the pillars have ornamental brackets. They were the people who introduced a new typed of pillars called the musical pillars. These pillars are made of granite stones.

Dark green chlorite stone and granite stones are used. They are sharply cut and skillfully modeled. The Vittala Ramasamy temple at Hampi is an important one due to its artchitectural superiority. It was started by Krishn Devaraya. It is 500 long and 310 wide. It has three gopuras and the towers in the east and south are quite appealing. Pillared halls are unique in nature. It is the shrine of Vishnu called by the name Vittalla, an embodiment of Lord Krishna. This temple is not fully completed. It is in an unfinished stage. It comprises of the main shrine ardha mandapa and muhamandapa. It is constructed on an elevated platform of five feet in height. It is guarded by the figures of spaced intervals. Every pillar is known for its architectural value and carved elaborately.

The main building is in rectangular size (135 x 67). The walls have embellishements. Niches and pilasters. 12 pillars are there in side it. At the end there is a garbhagriha, which is 75 x 72. The circumambulatory passage seems to be an additional one included at a later date. The Kalyan mandapa is a superb one. The monolithic ratha dedicated to the god of this palace is an unique one with revolving stone wheels. Thus it is a standing monument of superior architecture.

The Hazara Ramasamy temple was constructed exclusively for the worship of the royal family. In 1513 A.D. Krishna Devaroya started construction it. It is small in size. TheAmman shrine and Kalyana mandapa are the unique features. The front mandapa is a flat roofed one with four huge pillars. With ornamented shafts. The vimana is an appreciable one. The Amman shrine in this temple is the replica of the main shrine. Bas relief figures are made available in the walls. It is unique to note the availability of the figures of Siva in this Vaishnava temple.

Just adjacent to the Malayavantha hill the temple for Malayavanta Ragunatha temple is constructed. Rama is the presiding deity. Exquisite sculptures are made available in the Mahamandapa and Kalyana mandapa in this temple. The figures of two snakes approaching the sun and the moon are wonderful specimens of architectural value. There is a separate shrine for the monolithic statue of Narasimha.

At Lapakshi, the Siva temple was constructed by Henugonda Viruppanna, an officer of Achutaraya. This temple is a popular one for its fine architecture and exuberant pillars. The two temples available at Tatpadri are standing monuments of the Vijayanagar rulers. They are the temples dedicated to Ramalingeswara and venkataramana.

Krishna Devaraya constructed the largest Gopuram of the Kanchipuram Ekambareswara temple in 188 height. It stood as a model for various other towers. They devoted much attention in constructing various palaces and public buildings. The Bhuvana Vijaya constructed by Krishn Devaraya at Vijayanagar testifies to his contribution.

The sculptures of the Vijayanagar period are quote absorbing. The temples such as the hazara Ramasamy temple. Vittalasamy temple, the temples at Tadapatri are monumental. Hard granites have been carved in a wonderful way. The Vijayanagar sculptures also depict many social themes such as hunting dance, kolattam etc. The figures of animals, birds, flowers are carved for decorative purposes. The portraits of Vijayanagar rulers are made available in the temples at Tirupathi, Chidambaram, Srisailam and Vijayanagar. The clothing ornaments, decoration are more elaborate.

The paintings of the Vijayanagar period exhibit the revivalism of Hinduism. Wall paintings were given importance. At places like Hampi, Anegundi, Lapakshi, Somapallee, Kanchipuram, Varadaraja Perumal temple and vardhamana temple at Tirupparruthikundram one can see the paintings of the Vijayanagar period. In the walls and ceilings paintings relating to legends and myths are drawn. Scenes from Ramayana. Mahabharatha and vishnupurana are drawn. The Siva temples contain paintings associated with Saivism. Paintings of secular nature also came up during that period. It was also a period which devoted to miniature painting. Attractive figures have been drawn with decorations, ornaments and embellishements.

Pictures relating to Hindu mythology are seen in the ceilings of the Virupaksha temple. Pictures referring to Madana Vijaya. Tripura samhara are also available. The panel of Manmada and Rati is quite absorbing. The anger of Siva is portrayed in an excellent way. The Tripurantaka panel is also an interesting one. Siva’s movement is depicted in the form of sun and moon.

TheVirabhadra Swami temple at Lapakshi is an important one for its paintings. The ceilings of this temple contains a lot of paintings. The figures of Siva in the form of Linga. Parvathi are drawn in an exuberant manner. The costumes and ornaments are drawn a wonderful way. The colour combination is quite appealing. The Brahadeeswara temple at Tanjore, the Siddhalingeswara temple at Edeyur, the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuthikundram etc. have the paintings of the vijayanagar period. They have even painted the figures of Portuguese the father of Krishna Devarya etc. Thus it was a period of developments in various fields. They reveal the glorious contributions of a Hindu empire to the Indian culture.

The Vijayanagar Empire