The pre Mughal period in the history of India is knwona sthe period of theDelhi Sultanate. It commenced with the rule of the Slave dynasty and ended with the Loddiss. During that period a new type of foreign administration was introduced. The Sultan was treated as the shadow of god. Hence his authority was a superior one and the governed were subjugated. The politicalm condition had its own echo over the society. There was no democracy or equality among the ruled. As such the society was passing through a period of time of troubles.

The Society

Through the Hindus the majority they wre subservient to the rulers. There were many disparities and ups and downs. The social organization was not at all a staple or steady one. The varna system which was prevalent in the Hindu society was having its own hold over the society. That caused many breaches, divisions and factions among the professionals. While the Brahminswere maintaining their statuesque in the among the professionals. While the Brahmins were maintaining their statuesque in the Hindu society the others were restricted by social norms. The Hindu middle class was meddled withmany complexes. Caste disparities grew largely. Caste system was a rigid one. The varna samkaras became tightened. Mixed marriages too caused problems. Assimilation of Dravidians aborigines and foreign invaders were responsible for the outcome of new castes.

Casterism

Previously the Brahmins were generally called as sharmas and they were distinguished on the basis of the Gotras. But changes were introduced. The Brahmins themselves were called by names such as Misra, Shukla, Dikshit, Bhattacharya and so on. The freedom og marriage, interdinning and sub castes increased. In the same way among the Kshatriyas, vaisyas, Sudras there emerged a lot of sub divisions. Love, affection, unity and solidarity were restricted within a limited group. Anuloma marriages too began to cease. The smallness of groups added schism and faction in the society.

The Muslims also had the idea of common brotherhood only in name. There were lot of disparities, distinctions among people on the basis of birth, sect, race etc. The Arabs claimed superiority over the Muslims of other areas. They adopted all higher posts in the administration. As Prophet hailed from Arabia the Arabs were particular in claiming their superioroity. Thus a faction emerged between the Muslim members also. The Sayyads occupied an unique and advanced position among the Muslims. There were distinctions as shias and sunnis. There were racial disparities such as Arabs Persian. Turk Mongol, Pathan and Indo-Muslims. They had their own individual social customs. But the differences among the Muslims were not at all aaccute. They shared the hookah and drinks of the same class. They used common dishes for the meals. In general there was unity on the basis of religious precepts. As no social barriers are preached by the Holy Kuran they maintained an unity.

Slavery

Since slavery was a common feature among the Hindus there were slaves for Hindus and Muslims. The slaves were sold in the markets as cattles and other commodities. The slaves were either purchased or obtained as gifts. The insolvent debtor. War prisoners etc., were the slaves. The baby born of a slave girl through her master was a free citizen. The slave will become the wife of the master and she and her child had their share in the master’s property. The masters granted emancipation to the slaves at their will. The good conduct and the services rendered by the slave were also assisted the slave to gain freedom. The repayment of the debt will cause redumption. The manumission was granted by way of a written permission. Slave dealers were much inclined to have fair looking girls and boys. They were given education and trained in fine arts such as dance and music. By making them sophisticated in life they were made to win their masters. By that the dealers earned a huge income and enormous profit. The slaves too felt happy to be the slave of a greatman. The slaves of the Hindus were in a deplorable condition. It is worth to mention here that the Turkish slave system was the major causse for the success of the Muslims in India.

Women

During the medieval period the condition of women was not at all an appreciable oen. Their position was a honourable one. The Hindu wife was regarded as the mistress of the house. She was given her due place in the execution of religious rights and ceremonies. They had the opportunity to get education. Sankaracharya was defeated in a religious discussion by the wife of Madanmitra. Awanti sundari, wife of Rajasekar brought out a lexicon. Mira was a learned devotee of Lord Krishna and produced a large collection of songs. A lot of women were proficient in fine arts such as dance and music. The women were inferior to men. Since polygamy was available in royal and baronial families one could estimate that women were treated mainly as means for quenching the sexual appetitie. There prevailed enemity and envy among co-wives. When the harem bulged in size there was deterioration in the self respect of women. The female servant was keen upon captivating the attention of their masters by the charm. Sati was also prevalent and that testifies to the charity of women. The widow’s life was a miserable one and she could not marry. She even had no property right. Purdah system and child marriages were common. The birth of a female child was treated as a measure of condolence. Ibn Batuda has referred to the inheritance of the properties of a dead man by his sister’s son. Divorce and love marriagaes were also in vogue.

The women of the Muslim society enjoyed only lower status. Polygamy was prevalent among them. Under many circumstances the servant maids became the mistresses of the house due to their connection with the masters. Among the noble class lust and debauchery were common. Purdah system was more rigorous among Muslim women. The freedom of women was mostly restricted. Firuz Tughlag, even banned women from visiting the holy shrines. Anyhow the condition of Muslim women was more enviable than those of the Hindu women. TheMuslim widows had the right to remarry and had a larger share in the property of her husband.

Anyhow the women due to their attitudes and behaviours maintained their family life a happy one. Anyhow the relative chastity offered the scope for better way of life with well maintained family traditions.

Food

The Hindus adopted the principle of vegetarianism. Killing animals was considered as a sin. The warriors and Muslims were fond of using non-vegetarian diet. The shudras were also non vegetarians. Fish was eaten in the coastal areas.Culinary practices were popular. Delicious and sumptuous dishes were cooked at times of feasts and festivals. Milk and milk products were mostly liked by all. Nutritious diets were popular. Even few Hindus took the flesh of birds and beasts. The consumption of wine, and intoxicating liquor became familiar due to the fall in the standards of life. Use of opium was also common among the nobles. Due to hospitality among thepeople food produces were used by all.

Ornaments

TheMuslim houses were welldecorated, ornamented and furnished. Every one was fond of ornaments. Precious stones were used in plenty. It was a customary practice among women to decorate every inch of their body. They usd rings and necklaces. Ear rings were common. The idols in the temples also were decorated with rich variety of ornaments.

Dress

Cotton, woolen and silken cloths were used for dress making. Varieties of garments were used. Preciosu, embroidered and brighter coloured cloths were in vogue among the rich. The common men more very simple dresses. The dresses too stood for their economic prosperity.

Entertainments

The people entertained themselves by various kinds of amusements. Dance, drama and music were certain common, entertainments. Exhibitions and performances wre arranged. Dicing, hunting, gambling, wrestling, witnessing animal fights were other entertainments. Such smusements were commonly used by all the people. They also centred around their economic standards. The time was spent even by drinking. Folk dances also formed part and parcel of merry making.

Economic Condition

Instead of constant fighting and wars India was known for its richness and prosperity. The agriculturists and merchants were left unmeddled at times of war. Africultuer trade and industries flourished largely. The foreign trade brought huge amount of gold into India. Silver and precious stones were exchanged for spices, cloth and ivory goods. The ornaments worn by the people and wealthy condition of the temples will testify to the economic prosperity. Feasts and festivals were frequent due to the enormous wealth of the nation. Various foreign travelers have left with us many facts about the economic superiority of India. The facts about the booty and wealth looted from India by Mahmud of Ghazni. Muhammad Ghore, Timur and others will stand testimony to the wealthy condition. As the rulers did not interface with the farmers or industrialists their position was safe and they led a happy and comfortable life. Varieties of materials were produced by different industries. Large amountof money was paid in the form of charity and gift. The Amirs were rolling in wealth. Local artisans and craftsmen flourished. But there was no uniform standard to income.

Art and architecture

The Turks who brought India under their control were fond of art and architectyre. Their contribution was brilliant and characteristic. As invaders they brought with them the zeal and enthusiasm of knowinag the art of India. They had inspiration and capabilities to develop art and architecture. They produced their own individual style. The architecture of that age was neither Indo-Saracenic nor Pathan. At the same time it is not totally Indian in them and soul. It was a harmonious blending of Indo-Islamic styles. “Indo Islamic art is not merely a local variety of Islamic art” (Marshal).It was not only a modified form of Hindu style. It has borrowed and blended the aspects of both. But it is difficult to assess the degree of exchange. The syncretism emerged dueto various obvious reasons. The Indian artisans and craftsmen employed by the Turks in India had their own individualistic skills. By using their own brain they gave form to the Islamic themes.The Hindu and Jain temples wre used as theplaces for their mosques. Such facts affected the originality and identify to the Islamic art. The temple complexes were easy to be converted into mosques without much of difficulties. It was an opportunity for the conquerors to carry out their efforts with minimum amount of work. Since both the Hindus and Muslims devoted much to embellish and oenament their places or worship it was easy for Islam to absorb the existing local conditions. Ornamentation too had its own echo over them.

Qutub Minar was the earliest monument of the Islamic architecture. It was a tower of victory which were gained at Chittor and Mandu. It is 225 feet in height with four storeys. Qutb-ud-din-Aibak started this work and it completed by IItutmish. At the time of Firuz Tughlaq its height was raised to 234 feet.

Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque was founded in 1195 A.D. by Qutb-ud-din Ailak. It was constructed to commermorate the capture of Selhi. It compress of a open guadrangle and a prayer hall. In 1198 A.D. an arched screen was hungin front of the prayer chamber. In 1230 A.D. IItudmish expanded the area of this mosque. Subsequently Ala-ud-din Khilji contributed his share in this mosque.

The tomb of IItudmish is another unique architectural contributions of the early stage of the Sultanate period. The ornamented aspect is highly appreciable. The quranic texts are scribed in the walls.

In 1231-1232 A.D. Sultan Ghari was built. Grey granite is used. The white marble is used in the portico and the exterior wall of the tomb. This is known for its unique workmanship.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak constructed the Arhai-Din-Ka Jhompra at Ajmer in 1200 A.D. This mosque was adorned by IItudmish. It is a spacious beautified and dignified building.

The tomb of Balban though a small one, had its own decorations. The arches stand to prove the scientific structure.

The Jammat Khana Masjid was the work by Ala-ud-din-Khilji. This was the earliest architecture of the Muslims in India in its true Islamic styel.

The Alai Darwaza was built in 1311 A.D. It is a gem of Islamic architecture. It is known for its structural peroperty. The city Siri was constructed to allow the people of the suburb to lead a comfortable life. The Hauz-I-Khas tank is also the work of Alauddin Khilji.

The Tughlaq period witnessed a transition in the Islamic architecture. Importance was assigned to puritanical simplicity. Embellishments and ornamentations were givern up. Therewas no great artisitic quality. The skilled artisans also lost their importance. They city of Tughlaqabad and the sepulcher. Marble and sand stones are used. The walls are known for their simplicity and strength. Muhammed Bin Tughlag constructed the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahan Panali. It had its own fortifications.

Firuz Tughlag was a great builder. He was the cause for founding the cities such as Jaunpur. Fatehabad and hissar Firuza. At Delhi he built a palace and fort of Furuzahad. More than 100 sarais or rest houses were constructed by him for the benefit and comforts of the Muslim travelers. Irrigation facilities were arranged. The Firuz Shah Kotia was his work. The Jami Masjid was his contribution. From Topra the brought the Ashokan Pillar to Delhi. The Hauz-I-khas college was built by him.

Lal Gumbas of the tomb of Kabir-ud-din Auliya was the outcome of the periodof the Tughlaqs. With them the architecture met with an eclipse. The Sayyids and Lodis could not devote much attention to art and architecture. Only tombs were constructed with artisitic taste. The Moti-ki-masjid was the work emerged during the period of Sikkandar. Though the Sultans did not devote any attention to art and architecture there was a little development at the provincial level. The Provinces could not spend money on par with the Sultans of Delhi. They developed according to their economic and other conditions.

At Multan, the earliest place occupied by different rulers during various ages a lot of distinctive pieces of architecture are available. During the Arab conquest in 712 A.D. Muhammad Bin Qasim constructed a mosque there. The mosques of Shah Yusuf Gardizi, Baha-ul-Hag, Shams-I-Tabriz are the other monuments of that period. Ghiyaz-ud-din Tughlag constructed the tomb of Rukhn-i-Alam. Majority of them were in Persian style of architecture.

The Bengal style of architecture was an unique one and known for its design, finish and ornamentrs. Both bricks and stones were used. But the use of the later was a limited one. One could witness a harmonious blending of both Hindu and Muslim style of architecture in them. Sikkandar Shah erected the Adina Masjid which was known for its beautiful style. He was responsible for the construction of the Minars at Chota pandua and Gaur. The tomb of Jalab-ud-din Mohammed Shah was another monument. It was a pioneering style for various mosques and tombs of the future period. This tomb is significant for its simplicity.

The Sath Gumhad and Dakil Darwaza constructed during 1459 are in wonderful form with the use of brick and terracottah. The corner turrets and frontal cornice are quite superb and appealing. The Tantipura masjid is the finest specimen of the Bengal school of architecture. The Latan Masjid is yet another outcome of that period. This is constructed with the use of bricks. The square shaped prayer hall captivates the attention of all.

The Firuz Minar, a mosque Constructed as a tower of victory at Gaur is a one in 84 feet in height. The Chota sona majid and Bara sona masjid along with Badam Rasul mosque emerged during the reign period of Hussain Shah between 1493 and 1552. They stand to prove their exquisite nature with their simple but unique sttle.

With regard to the provincial architecture of the Sultanate period one can not overlook the contributions of Gujarat. It was an outcome of a stylish finish with magnificent style. The Mount Abu Jain temple is an art piece of theSultanate period. The city Ahmedabad founded by Ahmad Shah is a standing monument of that period. The Mosques and palaces construced there reveal the mastery of craftsmen. They have produced there things in their own indigenous style. The Teen Darwaza of the Triple gateway was a master piece and stood as model for the future style. The Persian architecture is brought to light by the tomb of DharyaKhan finished in 1453 A.D. It is in square shape.

The Gujarat architecture met with a culminating point during the reign period of Mohammad Begarha. He fortified the city Ahmedabad. The city was beautified further. He built the citadel of Champanir. The Jama Masjid of that place was his contribution. The Rani Sipari Mosque is an exquisite and wonderful specimen of the Mughal art. Though this mosque is a small one it stands for its architectural value. The Sidi Sayyid mosque is another wonderful piece of architecture and its plainness adds up its glory.

Malwa is another area stood for the introduction of a fresh variety of architecture. In the place which served as a Sanskrit college once, a new mosque called the Dhart mosque came into existence. This Bhojasala became a mosque. The local Sultan was responsible for the construction of Mandu and make that place as the capital of Malwa. It is one of the beautiful fortress cities of India. Here lies the mosque of Dilawar Khan and it is having wonderful carvings at the ceilings. Mahmud Khalki constructed the Jami Masjid at Mandu. He was also responsible for the construction of the Hindola Mahal or Durbar Hall at Mandu. Many tombs are attributed to that place. The first marble tomb of Hushang is available there. The Jahaz Mahal of that place having the arched halls and pavilions above the roof. The Baz Bahadur palace is yet another architectural monument of Mandu.

The Ibrahim Naib Masjid and fort at Jaunpur are certain remarkable features of the architecture of the sultanate period. The Lal Darwaja, is an addition made to the Atals Masjid at Jaunpur. These architectural phases are quite appreciable due to their ornamentations and decorations. The minute workmanship is quite appealing and captivationg. Some of them though small and simple, touch the hearts of the art lovers. One cannot deny that there was a constant and continous flow of uniform system of architecture. They stood as a bridge between the artistic features of the Rajputs and the Mughals.

IItudmish was a great builder. The Hauz-i-Shamsi, the idgah and Jami Masjid are his contributions.

Kashmir was not an exemption in producing the architecture during the sultanate period. The tomb of Mandani, the Jami Masjid at Srinagar and the mosque of Shah Hamadan are the outcomes from that region.

Thus the Delhi Sultanate period was the one known for its contributions.

Paintings

During the reign period of the Delhi Sultans painting also developed. The Pala school of painting which flourished in Bengal and Bihar, met with a set back. Miniature painting was a priminent one. The Muslim courts of Mandy, Jaunpur and Ahmedabad were centres of painting. They were greatly influenced by Persia. There was a combination of Indian and Persian elements. The Muslims nobles were patrons of calligraphy, and painting. The Indian merchants and Jain bankers who had developed commercial contacts with the Muslims were enabled to encourage painting. The Muslim aristorcracy had faith over painting. Painted pottery, too served as impetus for developed painting. The mongoloid form too had its own echo in the field of painting. They are remarkable in depicting facial expressions, constumes etc. No greater importance was assigned to the comtemporary style of life. The ornaments of women the turban of men are all disclosed by them. There were regional variations. Male and female figures are nicely painted.

Under Baz Bahadur, the romantic themes occupied an unique place. The Gujarat school of painting was a captivating one. The Jain style and Persianised systems attained prominence. The Meerat style was another unique form developed then. The hillocks gardens, female figures of slave girls are important. They contain faces of different recial elements. They used yellow and other dark colours. Long Bijamas, turbans, cholis, skirt, earing etc., are depicted in an excellent form. The arches and domes are also painted. The Persian artists were employed for painting in India. Different varieties of human figures are painted. Sky, clouds, sea, trees, birds, animals and architecture arealso available. The faces are drawn without any expression. Such type is called the Rajasthani style. Much importance was assigned to facial expressions in different areas. During the 16th century greater attention was paid to the exhibition of the different varieties of cloths. The transparent nature of the clothes are brought out in wonderful form. The Muslim rulers or Birar. Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Gokonda during the 16th century were patrons of painting. Poets and painters from Turkey were invited. Ismail Adilshah pf Bijapur and son of Yusuf Adilsha was a great painter. Sultana Chand was also an eminent painter. The Deccani Sultans devoted attention to painting than the Sultans of Delhi.

The Delhi Sultanate