The Imperial Chola line commenced with Parakesari Vijayalaya (846-881 A.D) and ended with Parakesari Adhi Rajendra in 1070 A.D. Then started the Chalukya Chola line. With Rajaskesari Kulottunga I (1070-1120 A.D) it started and ended with Rajendra III (1246-1279). The chola rule in the Kaveri region was a significant one due to its manysided developments. The fertility of the soil, the talents and capacity of the chola monarchs the attitudes and behavious of the people were all the causes for the superiority of the chola country.

Social conditions

There were many towns, urs and villages. The people had both urban and rural ways of life. The society was a developed one in various respects. That was gradually developing into a cultural superiority. Life met with many changes.

Caste

Various chola inscriptions offer a lot of details about the Chola society. There were different caste people who were known for their prompt execution of duties. Distinctions and disparities were available with regard to upper and lower castes. There were no confronations and feuds among them. The expansion in the different professions and occupations led to developed caste system. Many new professions and professionals emerged. For instance the Ennayiram inscription speaks about the involvement of the Brahmins in agrarian activites.

The Brahmins still enjoyed a superior position in the society. They were concentrating on religious activities. Due to their wisdom, imparting education and knowledge were their hereditary professions. They were expers in Vedas and Sastras. During evening and early nights they conducted discourses in the ambalams and temple mandapas. They preached the principles and philosophies exposed by the epics and Puranas. They were experts in vedic scriptures and Sanskrit. They maintained a high moral standard. They were granted lands by the rulers and they were known as Veda vriddhi. Patta Vriddhi, Purana viruddhi, Bharatha vriddhi etc. The lands granted were tax free iraiyili lands. They were provided with noon meals in the temples. The landed donations were executed by ursabha, mulaparushiyar, temple administrators etc. They lived in separated areas such as agraharas, They were exempted from various taxes. They even rendered their views at the time of judgements in specific cases. Thus their position in society was a venerable one.

Professionals

There were different professionals and they enjoyed many rights and privileges from the rulers. The Pancha Kammalas had the right to wear sacred threads like Brahmins. An inscription of the period of Kulottunga I says that they had no other rights except the wearing of the sacred thread. The Perur and Karur inscriptions reveal that the kammalas of South Kongu region and Vengala nadu had the rights to use a double conch, chappals and right to white was their houses. Raja Raja I has rendered tax exemptions to the vellalas. Rajendra I assigned the right to engrave the names in the copper plates only to the scribes of Kanchipuram. During the period of Uttama Chola only yhe weavers of Kanchipuram alone were offered the rights to make dresses for the royal family. The Pancha kammalas were known as Visvakarama Brahmins. The kiranur inscription says that the shepherds of Kiranur were allowed to construct their houses with two ways. The professions were hereditary in character.

During the chola period the divisions called valangai and idangai enlarged. Except Brahmins and vellalas others were created as people belonging to either valangai or idangai sects. From the 11th century onwards feuds emerged among them. The Uttattur and Tiruppaignili inscriptions belonging to 1128 A.D. suggest certain rights offered to right and left hand groups. The Adudurai inscription reveals that there were 98 castes among right hand groups.

The kammalas of Kanchipuram during the 11th century were assigned seats in the left side of goddess kali. The Cholan Purva pattayam points out that Kulottunga III settled the caste feuds among the Vellalas, Chettis, Kaikkolas etc. Ellis is of the opinion that the valangai and idangai divisions prevailed among the agriculturists. Anyhow this view has no supportive evidences. Hence it is rejected. M. Srinivas Aiyangar is of the opinion that such divisions would have emerged because of sociological, ecnomic and religious rights. Further it is believed tha the valangai and idangai divisions emerged mainly due to the methods of consctiption by the chola monarchs. Accordingly those who were already in the military forces were right hand people and those newly recruited were treated as left had people. Such disparities, divisions and factions continued even upto the 19th century.

Women

The women were assigne da venerable position in the society. The chola monarchs encouraged polygamy as a diplomatic measure at times of war. Due to their economic wealth the rich had more than one wife. But one man one wife was commonly practiced and appreciated. Salt was in practice. The Allur, Thirukkovalur and Brajummedesam inscriptions mention about Sati. Gangamadevi, a queen fom Kodumbalur, Vanavan Madevi, wife of Sundara Chola. Viramadevi, wife of Rajendra I wre the notable Chola queens who committed self immolation. Elavanasur inscription attests the fact about Sati. But this tradition lost its position during the subsequent later Chola period.

Women were experts in fine arts. Those who were experts in dancing and music were called talichcherry pendir. They served in the temples. Exports in dance and music were all encouraged by raja Raja, the great They were living in specific streets around the Pragadeeswara temple, Tanjore. 32 dancers and actresses were serving in the Virattaneswara temple of Tirukkovalur. They dedicated themselves to god. Hence they were known as Devaradiyar. They were also called Kanigayar. As they married none they were also called by the name pathiyilar. Those who got married left their profession. They enjoyed high reputation in the society. The expert dancers were even given the titles such as Talaikkol.

Slavery

Slavery continued to exist even during the chola period. Majority of the slaves were associated with the temples. Due to economic distresses they became slaves of the temples. The slaves of the temples were used in the renovation, repairing and construction of the temple works. They sang devotional songs, for beating drums, flying whisks they were utilised. Women slaves were also sold to temples. During the later chola period slaves were engaged in agricultural activites. Slaves were also recognized as wealth. The slaves escaped were captured and punished. Women were sold by a document called Alvilai pirammana isaivu theetu. After the death of a slave husband, his wife became a slave.

Food

Rive was the principal item of food. Beyond rice, maze, ragi, beans, grams, sesame etc. formed the items of food. Rice flake, various fruits, milk rice, Akkara adisil, tamarind rice, vegetables, green were consumed, curd, ghee, buttermilk wre added with rice. The culinary practices were familiar. Non vegetarian diet was common. Toddy was used by them commonly. They took food by sitting on mats or wooden planks. Madai or Bahanul explained things relating to cooking.

Dress

Men wore garments upto their kness. Turban was also used. Women were accustomed to wear sarees. Their breasts were covered by a kachchai. Palavi, Pattu. Puntugil, Kalingam, silk, woolen dresses were all used. Hunters and others and chappals.

Beautification

The people showed greater importance to beautification and decoration. Eyetex was commonly used by women. Sweet smelling fragrant materials were used. Garlands made of different flowers were used. Varieties of ornaments were in vogue. Combs were made of tusks. Cosmetics wre used in plenty by women.

Dance and music

Music and dance were familiar. A lot works on dance and music were available. Vocal and instrumental musics were popular. Flute, yal, vina, drum were popular musical instruments of that age. Music concerts were arranged frequently. At the time of eru taluvudal a specific kind of drum called erangkol was beaten. Elini was the pouch to keep the vina in tact. Toriyamadantayar were people who sang songs at times of dance performances.

Belief

Due to the Bhakti movement frsh beliefs emerged. Life after death was accepted. Faith and belief over rebirth attained significance. People believed in the existence of fate, ghost, sin etc. They gave importance to omens and movement of animals. They carried out their activities at the auspicious hours. Faith over the asterisms and astrology also increased. The quivering of the left and right eyes of women and men were considered as good signs. The sound of owl was treated as the pronouncement of an evil. They gave important even to sneezing. The crying of the crow was eh sign of expectancy of a guest. They had faith over dreams also. Customs and habits The Tamil society of the chola period devoted much attention to customary practices and habits. During festive occasions king’s life was enacted as a drama. Tamil month karthigai was celebrated with light. The arrival of flood in Kaveri was announced by beat of Tom Toms to the public.

It was a customary practice to have a small walk after every meal. The new born baby was marked by a thilak in the forehead. Writing the horoscope for the baby was a common custom. The naming of the baby was done on the 12th day after the birth. Tonsuring and ear borning were other common customs. The Brahmins adhered to the initation ceremony called upanayana. The sending of the child to the school at the age of five was a common custom and that was celebrated in a grand manner. At that time the teachers were given even gold coins. Cremation was common. The ladies accompanied upto the cremation ground. There the wife’s bangles were broken and here ornaments were all removed. Offering pindappali to the crow was common. It was the saltlness cooked rice. At the time of the retirement of kings the shops were closed. The guests were given a warm welcome by offering betal and nuts. Verrilai cheppu was the continer used for keeping betal. Gold plates were used to entertain Brahmin guests. The barbers used razors made of iron and steel.

Marriage

The common people were adopting only monogamy. The Kanigar or astrologer fixed the appropriate and apt hours for the marriages. Polygamy was practiced by the rich and rulers. The maternal uncle was given the first preference to marry a girl. The bridegroom gave todu vilai or bride price to bride. Lands were offered to women as magat kodla. The husband cannot spent the stridhanam offered to the wife. At a later period giving bride money or parisappanam was avoided and was treated as an offence. The marriageable age was 12 years for the girls. Circumambulation of the fire was a regular practice. Tieing the sacred thread on the wrists was common. During the period of raja Raja I wearing the Tali was a popular practice.

Entertainment

Goat fighting and cock fighting were common. Horse and elephant races were also popular. The women were engaed in water games. Playing balls, conducting doll marriages, singing etc. During festivals various ceremonies and festivals were arranged. Seeing kuthu, dance and music performances etc. were other entertainments.

Medicine

It was an age which had a developed system of medicine. Experts in conduting surgery were also available then. The disease was decided by feeling the pulse. Arrangements were made to cure the diseases of different sets of people. Endowments were assigned to physicians. At places like Tirummukudal and Ennayiram there were public hospitals. Herbal medicine was also utilised.

Education

Education was a prominent feature of the chola age. On the basis of the receptive nature of the people education was imparted. In centered around birth, caste and heredity. Public istruction did not gain greater impetus. Pias schools were common. Shades of trees and temple mandapas were places chosed for imparting education. The teachers earned their livelihood by landed grants. Free schools also functioned then. Listening to Ramayana and Mahabharatha were treated as public instructions. Religious instructions comprised of the preachings of Siva Dharma. Somasiddhanta, Ramanuja Bhashyam etc. Temples, muts, pallis, viharas offered higher education. They even contained libraries. Palm leves were used for writing. Special teachers were available to teach Mimamsa. Vyakarna etc. there were Patasalas and Kalluris. They were maintained by the donations offered by the philanthropists. At Kampullur there existed a veda patasala during the reign period of Parantaka I. The Aniyur Mahasabayor had made arrangements in 999 A.D. to have a patta vriddthi for teaching Vedas and grammar. Rajendra I had made arrangements to feed teachers and students of that region. On that line 340 students and 14 teachers were fed. Rajadhi Raja’s inscription dated 1048 A.D. mentions about the exemptions granted to the teachers and students from participating in public duties. The Tirumukkudal inscription of Virarajendra datable to 1067 A.D. refers to a Kalluri run by the Perumal temple of that place. Along with Vedas, grammar was also taught there. Every teacher who taught 10 students were given tour padakku paddy and a gold coin every year. The Adyayana Patasalai of that place taught Vedas. The Thiruvidaimarudur inscription of the year 1121 A.D. belonging to the period of Vikrama chola has mentioned about the teaching of medicine and grammer. The Tiruvorriyur inscription of the year 1213 A.D. speaks about the grant of 65 velis of land to a grammer school of that place. Another inscription of Thiruvidaikkali dated 1229 A.D. points out the arrangements made of the Brahmin students who studied Vedanta there. Thus it was a period which devoted much attention to education.

Literature

The chola monarchs were patrons of literature. Grants and donations were offered in large numbers. The Meikirtis of the chola monarchs testify to the developed nature of the Tamil language. Their inscriptions contain both poetic and prose forms in announching their grants.

Raja Raja Natakam. Raja Raja Vijayams were the dramas of that period. Kumuda Chandra of Tribhuvani produced his work called Kulothunga Chola Charithai. Kannivana puranam and Pumbuliyur Natakam were the works by Kamalalya Bhattar. Arumbakkam Vatsa Raja translated Mahabharatha into Tamil. Pungkoil Nambi was the author of the work Viranikka Vijayam. Vallai Antadi was a work on the deity of Tiruvallam by Varadayyapulavar. The chola monarchs were experts in Sanskrit and Tamil Languages.

During the time of Raja Raja ‘The Great’ because of his efforts the Saiva Tirumurals were compiled by Nambiyandar Nambi. Eight Tirumurais were compiled then.

Gnanasambandar Devaram First three Tirumurais. Appar Devaram 4th, 5th, 6th Tirumurais. Sundarar Devaram 7th Tirumurai. Manickavasagar’s Tiruvasagam 8th Tirumurai.

In 1148 A.D. Uyyavanda Devar, wrote his Thiruvunthiyar. In 1178 A.D. Thirukkalirruppadiyar was written. In 1238 A.D. Manikandar of pennagadam wrote his Sivagnanabhodam. Sivagnana Siddhiyar of Arulnandhi Sivachariyar was produced during that period. He wrote the worl Iruba in both Venba and Asiriyappa forms. Unmaivilakkam by Manavasagam Kadantha Varavar was also the work of the chola period. It contains only 55 songs. The Saiva Siddhanta principles are brought out under titles Anma Dattuvam. Vidhya Dattuvam, Suddha Dattuvam. Pasam, Anma, Swarupam. Ainteluttu, Mukthi, Valipadu etc.

Civaka Cintamani, Valayapathy, Kundaladesi were the works emerged during the chola period. Nilakesi was the work written by Samaya Divakara Vamana Munivar. It is a Jain work written to repudiate the Buddhist order. It is also known as Nilakesi Thirathu. It is written in 894 songs. Sulamani of Tholamani Thevar was a work based on Arugada Mahapuranam. Adiyarkkunallar and Nachchinarkkiniyar have all quoted from Sulamani. This work belongs to the 10th century A.D. Kalladam, the work by Kalladanar consists of 102 songs is written in Asiriyappa form. The theme of this work centers around puranic stories. But the form is like that of Sangam work.

Kalingathupparani of Jeyankondar is the first work in Parani form. It refers to the victory of Karunakara Tondaiman, the general of Kulottungal I over Anandavarman Sodasa Gangan, the ruler of Kalinga. It satisfies all the requirements writing Tamil poetry. The division called Raja Parampariyam contains the genealogy of the Cholas before Kulottunga, who is hailed exhaustively in this work. It could be treated as a historical work written in 1112 A.D.

Muvarula is the work written by Ottakkuttar. Who was well versed in Sanskrit and Tamil. He is hailed as Kavi Chakravarthi and Kavi Rakshasan. He lived during the periods of Vikrama chola. Kulottunga II and Raja Raja II. It contains details about the daily routine of the chola rulers.

Kulottungan Pillai Tamil was written on Kulottunga II. This is the first Pillari Tamil work in Tamil language by Ottakkuthar.

Thakkayagapparani was also a work by Ottakuttar. Lord Siva is the hero of this poem. It speaks about the glory of Raja Raja, the great. Kaveri and Uraiyur are praised in this work. He also wrote Uttarakandam. He also wrote Arumbai Tollayiram. Kangeyan Nalayirak Kovai etc.

Pugalenthi wrote the work called Nalavenba in venba form. It is known for its simplicity and form. It contains the story of Nolobakkiyanam of Mahabharatha. It refers to the story of Nalan. Swayamvara Kanda, Kalitodar Kandam, Kaliningu Kandam were the three parts available in it. It refers to the way of life.

Sekkilar alies Arulmoli Thevar born at Kubnrathur of Tondainadu was known for his scholarship and wisdom. He was the chief minister of Anabhaya chola alias Kulottunga II. He was also called by the named Uttama Chola Pallavan and Tondar Sir Paravuvar. At the request of Anabhayan he wrote the work called Periya Puranam or Thiruttondar Puranam.

Kambar born at Thiruvennai Nallur was patronised by Sadayappa Vallal. He wrote the wrok Ramayana in Tamil. He was hailed as Kavi Chakravarthi. He is supposed to have lived during the 12th century. His expressions descriptions geographical knowledge revealed through his work are quite appealing.

Buddhamitra’s Virasoliyam. Gunavira Pandithar’s Neminatham, Bhanvanthi’s Naunul were the chief grammar works written during that period. Amirtha sagara’s Yapperum Kalam, and Dandi’s Dasakumara charitam were the other works of that period. Sudamani Nihandu. Bingala Nihandu, Sendan Divaharam were the works belonging to that period. Thus the chola period witnessed the development of Tamil and Sanskrit of Tamil and Sanskrit literature.

Economic condition Lands

The land and yields from it were the basic units of the economy of the state. During the periods of Raja Raja (1001 A.D.) Kulottunga I (1086 A.D.) and Kulottunga III (1286 A.D.) lands were surveyed. The land measurements were so accurate. Stones were used to mark the boundaries. The marks such as trisul, wheel, kundigai, Mukkudai etc, were available in the stones which marked the boundaries of temple lands. They were generally known as Pulladi Karkal. The lands were divided on the basis of their yields into 14 varieties. Taxes wre levied on the basis of the yield. Ninrirai was the inalterable fixed tax on lands Ur Natham, the working places of washermen, temples, tanks and roads cremation ground were all exempted from land texes.

Taxes

Private land owners enjoyed high social status and reputation. So the people were fond of possessing at least a small quantum of land. Land lords formed the basis for the economy of the state. Sabha Manjigam. Ur Manjigam, Urppodu were common lands of that area. The lands were the hereditary possession of the individuals. They had the right to pledge. Sell mortgage or transfer the land. Those who were engaged in public activities were entrusted with their lands. There were labourers who earned daily wages. Wage was given in the form of kind i.e. paddy. The tenancy system was also in vogue and the yields were divided under a ratio. Vellan vahai was the land used by individual land lords. Jeevitham, Bhogam, Kani, Viruddhi, Parru, puram. Patti Murrutu were the lands assigned for different purposes. Devadanam, Pallichandam. Tiruvidayatham. Madappuram, Solabogan, Brahmnadeyam, the donated lands were transferred at the will of the monarch at the request of the individuals.

Land tax formed the major portion of the income of the state. There were direct and indirect taxes. Kadamai was the land tax. Taxes were known as irai and kanikkadan. Kudimai of Sungam were other taxes. Tirai was also collected. Land tax was collected either by cash or kind. The Panchavara Variyam of the village sabhas collected the taxes and sent to the state treasury. 1/6 of the total produce was the land tax. Puravu, Iravu were other land taxes. The Alangudi inscription refers to the tax collected for war. To raise the banks of river Kaveri a tax called Kaverikkarai Viniyoham was collected. For maintaining public works taxes such as Sabha Viniyogam and Uridu Varpadu are collected. Tari irai Manai irai, Chekkirai, Vannar pattam. Thattar pattam, idaippattam, kuli, ulgu. Taragu, cllirai, cirrayam, cilvari were other taxes.

There were tax free iraiyili lands. The lands of those who failed to pay the taxes were auctioned and states share was realized. The amount thus collected was known as peruvilai. Sometimes the lands were forfeited and sold and the due was realized. The taxes were all coolected without any mercy. S specific sum was kept as deposit to meet out the natural calamities.

Coins

Kalanju, pon, Manjadi, Madai were some of the coins available. Kasu was another denomination. Raja Rajan madai, anradu narkasu, Palankasu, Narpalankasu were also certain common coins. There was no uniformity in size and weight. Copper and gold coins were in vogue. After Kulottunga I many coins were introduced. Uttamma Kanda madai, pirutha madai, Samara madai, Nachchi madai, Pujabala madai, Palampulli madai, Kandagopalan madai etc were the varieties of coins used. Karumkasu, Akkam were the popular coins used throughout the chola region.

Weights and measures

Videl Viduhu Kal, advallan, Dakshinameru Vidangan were the measures used to weight gold. Vaiyagattar kal was another weight. 16 San kol. Kadigai Kalattukkol, Sri padakkol. Maligai kol etc were used to measure lands. Ma, kuli, veli were land measurements. Nali. Marakkal, Kuruni wer also adopted.

Industries

Many industries were functioning in the chola country. Icon making, masonly, carpentary, smithy, painting vessal making, weaving spinning etc., formed the major industries of that period. The gold smiths produced varieties of ornaments for the temples. Royal families and the rich. Metallic industry was familiar. Weaving industry became popular. Preparation of salt was another industry. Salt pans at Marakkanam, Ayadurai. Variyur, Cape Comerin were quite familiar.

Trade and Commerce

The references about vathi. Peruvali etc pointout the movement of goods and people from one place to the other. The Kodumabalur Manigramathar. Thiruppurambiyam Valanjiyar. Dharma vanigar, Sathiya vasagar were popular merchant guilds available during that period. They had established their mutts at different places. In 1207 A.D. guilds were available at Nellore, Arcot, Mylapore, Poonamalle, Nedumpirai, Perungalur etc., and they concentrated more on devotional activities. In 1235 A.D. Chithirameli Periya Nattar. Tisai Ayirattu Ainurruvar, Chettis, Munai vira kodiyar etc., formed the guild called Raja Raja Peru Nirarviyom. They promoted trade, public activities and religious services. Nanadesigai Tisai Ayirattu Ainurruvar wasa popular group among the merchant guilds. During the reign periods of Vijayalaya and Parantaka I, such guilds were familiar. In 1015 A.D. they donated funds of the construction of houses at Chatturvedi mangalam. In 1033 they have donated landsto the Siva temple at Ambasamudram. The Tamil inscription at Lopotova at Sumatra a belonging to 1088 A.D. mentions about this group. They had commercial contact with Malaya, Magadam Kamboja. Nepal, Sri Vijaya etc. Herbs, precious stones, scented materials, animals, horses etc., were the commercial commodities. The local trades were carried out with the use of asses and bullocks. They carried out services to gods of many places. Because of their efforts many new trade centers emerged. In 1199 A.D. a new center called Tayilanallapuram came into existence. The Nanadesis were known for their wealth and freedom. Its members were venerated largely. They protected their commodities by their own military forces. They did their best for their developed trade and commence.

On the basis of signed documents loans were all granted. The loan agreements were called kadavolai. Interest was also collected on loans. The ursabhas and local temples also granted loans to the needy people. It was a strenuous task to collect the interest which varied from place to place.

Lands and houses were sold and transferred on the basis of stipulated loans and regulations. Anga girayam, Peruvilai, Sandipperuvilai, Sabha or urivilai were the amounts collected for the lands sold. The Udayangudi inscriptions reveal the abve facts. The lands were sold to Vishnu temples at a price called Senapathy peruvilai. At time of the sale of lands parruchittu or vilaippiramanam were executed.

The Tamils had commercial contacts with Arabia. Africa. Malaya and other South East Asian countries. They had commercial contact with china. Mamallapuram, Kaverippumpattinam, Saliyur, Korkkai, Quilon were the important trade centers even during the period of the Cholas. Pepper, Camphor, Ahil, herbs, sandal wood, horse cotton, just pulses, coral tusks, horns of rhinocerous, pearls were the commodities.

Religious condition

It was a period of religious development. New changes and traditions wre introduced. Naturism and animism were popular. Ancestral worship was also in vogue. Alongwith agamic worship of pan Indian deities folk deities such as Pidari, Sudalaimadan. Angalamman etc., were worshipped. Temples and temple architecture developed. Separate temples were constructed for Siva, Vishnu. Surya and others. To Celebrate the victories of rulers such as Raja Raja I & Rajendra I temples such as the Brahadeeswara temple and Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple were constructed. Parantakal I was known as Koilpon Veinda Devan because the Vimana of the Natarja temple at Chidambaram was studded with gold. Chembian Madevi, wife of Kandaradhita contributed a lot of various temples. In 1001 A.D. she constructed the Chandramouleeswara temple at Thiruvakkarai. The temples served the best in giving employment opportunites at times of construction, renovation and maintenance. There were dancers, singers oduwars. Priests and others. The temples were contres of learning and known for enormous wealth.

Mutts

The Mutts rendered valuable services in prmoting religion. The mutts functioned form the areas first adjacent to the temples. They preached religious principles and assisted religious qualities. Thiruvadurai, Tiruvorriyu the Patanjali Devar mutt at Tirupparrappuliyur. Thiruvanaikka Naduvil mutt. Tiruvidaimarudu. Maligai Madattu Mudaliyar Mutt were few familiar mutts of that period. They served as resting places and educational centers. Melaicherry, Patajali Devar Mutt. Thiruvarur Dakshine Kolagai mutt. Madurai Gnanasambandar Mutt etc., were other prominent mutts of that period. They even provided food to pilgrims. Sages learned scholars also stayed there.

Majority of the chola monarchs, through served as followers of Saivism they were religious tolerants. Vira Saivism, attained prominence. Lingayats also developed a lot. The Kalamuthas of Mahaviradhins were popular. The Kapalikas, the staunch saivitis used to take food in the skulls. Those people, who had applied the ashes of the cremated dead bodies and holy ashes were disliked by achcharyas such as Ramanuja. The Kalamuhas had their mutt at Kodumbalur. Vedal, Melpadi, Tiruvorriyur etc. The Kalamulas were large in number and they did their best in promoting Saivism. From 1018 to 1253 A.D. they were quite popular.

The Ari Kesavanmutt during the period of Kulottunga I was a popular Vaishnava mutt. The mutt functioned from Kanchipuram propagated the ideas of Ramanuja. It had a library which consisted of palmyrah manuscripts. The Vamanamalai Vaishnava mutt was also a popular one. The Mannarkudi Sendalan Karar Mamuni mutt. Cheranmadevi vaishnava mutt wre other popular mutts. The Saiva mutts were more popular than the Vaishnava mutts. The mutts, with specific rules and regulations. functioned for the promotion of religious activites.

Raja Raja, the great not only made arrangements to compile the Saiva canonical works but also made arrangements to sing them in the Siva temples. The Devara Padigams and Divya Prabanda pasurams were popular. Efforts were taken to promote devotional songs. Oduwars and Devaranayagams were appointed to chant them in the temples. Rants were also assigned to sing them in the temples. The Utkal inscription refers to the singing of Tiruvoymoli. Tirunedum tandagam was made to sing at the Vishnu temple of Trukkovilur. Tirunedum tandagam was made to sing at the Vishnu temple of Tirukkovilur. Kulottunga III appointed a scholor to explain Ramanuja Bhasyam at kanchipuram.

There were rivalries between the Saivites and Vaishnavites. Though the kings wre religious tolerants the people had their schims among the people. During the period of Adhi Rajendra. Ramanuja was persecuted and insulted . Religious feuds were common at places like Chidambaram. Kanchipuram etc. Raja Raja donated to the construction of the Chudamani Vihara at Nagapattinam.

Saivism

Siva was worshipped in the form of Nataraja, Geeratharjuniya. Pitchadana, Dakshina murthy Bhairava. Lingothbhava etc. The chola period was the silver age of Saivism. It was at a highly developed and venerable state. Many Siva temples emerged. Regular rituals, ceremonies and festivals were all arranged. Linga worship gained impetus during that period. The Saiva Siddhanta philosophy was recognized. The concept of Pathi, Pasu and pasam attained a significant place. The people believed that one should be keen and enthusiastic in the worship to get rid of the worldly miseries. Chidambaram was a renowned centre of Saivism during that period.

Vaishnavisam

Vaishnavisam was also a popular religion during the period of the cholas. Ekatandi sages were engaged in promoting Vaishnavism. Ramanuja was the popular Archarya. He brought unity between Vedanta and Bhakthi. He initiated the temple entry movement. He died at Srirangam in 1137 A.D.

Nimbarkar was also a Vaishnava saint who adopted the policy of unification and give and take. He was a staunch devotee of Radha and Krishna. He believed that God. Atma and world are one. The Vedanta Sudras and Siddhanta Ratna contain his principles.

During the 13th century the Vadakalai and Tenkalai division emerged in Tamilnade among the followers of Ramanuja. It emerged due to the principle of surrender of prapatti. While the Tenkalai sect showed allegiance to Nalayira Divya Prabandam, the Vadakalai sect gave importance to the northern Vedas. Pillai Lobanacharya born in 1213 A.D. was a devotee of Tenkalai. Vedanta Desigar born in 1268 was a supporter of Vadakalai sect. The Vaishnava Acharyas wrote devotional songs and research works. Yamunacharya, Yadhavaprakara were the chief exponents of Vaishnavism, Jaiminsya Samaveda was popular, Sanskrit was popular among them.

Festivals

The Chola monarchsw concentrated more the regular conduct of the rituals. Festivals were arranged regularly on the basis of asterisms and movement of stars. The birthdays of the chola monarchs were celebrated in a grand manner. The Mahamaham festival at Kumabakonam was a familiar one even in the 14th century. Rajendra I donated money to feed 1000 people on the day of Ani Tirumanjanam. Panguni Teepam festival was popular at Perur. Sivarathiri, Sankaranthi, Taipusam, Uriyadivila. Adi Tiruppura nonbu, Margali Thiruvadirai were few significant festivals of the chola period. Navagraha worship. Sun worship were popular.

Jainism

During the chola period the Jains lived around Kaverippumpattinam. The Jain monks wre worshiped as Nandhi Devas. The Jain women ascetics were known as Kurathiyar Arayankani Goundhiyar etc. The land grants assigned to them were called pallichandam. At North Arcot there existed a Jain Mutt. The Tirumalai and Tirumalapadi Jain temples obtained donations from Kundavai Nachchiyar. In 1116 A.D. the Jain monks bought lands for a Jain temple at Jina Kanchi. There were Jain temples at Maruthuvakkudi. Cuhur etc due to the efforts of Kulottinga I and Vikrama chola.

Art and Architecture

The temple architecture attained significance during the chola period. The chola temples could be divided into early, medieval and later chola temples.

Early Phase

The Thirukkalukunram stoen structural temple was the earliest one belonging to the period of Aditya I. He also constructed the Kannanur Balasubramanya temple. The Thirukkodikaval brick temple was converted into a stone one by Chembiyan Madevi. The Korenganatha temple a Srinivasanallur is also the work of the early chola period. The temple architecture of that period was in a transitional stage. The chola pillars contain the figuresof lions at the bottom. The Upa pidam was a decorative one. The main shrine was in square shape. The griva, sikara, stupa were arranged with exact specifications. The Narthamalai Vijayalaya Cholesswara temple. Kanchipuram Mukteeswara temple. Matangeswara temple and Tripurantakeswara temples testify to the early chola art. Minor deities or parivara devates had small separate shrines outside the main shrine. There were towers in the outer prakaras. Deities are installed on agamic principles. Panagudi, Agasteeswara temple. Tirukkattalai Sundareswara temple too belonged to this period. Sapta matirkas , Surya, Ganesha, Balasubramanya, Jeyestha were primary deities. The Tiruttandeeswara temple at Dindivanam is a work by Parantaka.

The Octogonal pita bears the Mahalingaswamy yemple at Tiruvidaimarudur. The Kodumbalur Muvar temple is also attributed to the period of Sundara Chola. Siva was installed in different periods. Pullamangai Brahmmapuriswara temple. Kodumbalur Mukdeeswara temple, Punchai Naldunai Iswara temple, Chittoor Agneeswara temple are all temples belonging to the period between 850 and 985 A.D.

Medieval Period (985-1070 A.D)

Chola temple architecture was at its peak during this period. A lot of temples were constructed during that period. They were known for their larger size and architectural glories. The tanjore pragadeeswara temple of Raja Raja the great and Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and the two renowned temples constructed during that age.

The Pragadesswara temple constructed by Raja Raja the great during 1003 and106 A.D. is a wonderful work of the chola period. This temple was constructed to commemorate the victory of Raja Raja over Chalukya Satyasraya. It is also known as Raja Rajeswaram. In 1009 A.D. the copper kalasam was installed over the Vimana. This temple was constructed in 793 x 397. Along with the required mandapas it comprises of 35 sub shrines. The Vimana called as Dakshinameru is of 216 in height. It is an unique one because the shadow of this vimana will neve touch the ground at any time. It is built over a phase of 99. There is a semi circular stone at the top weighing 80 tons. The embellishements and decorations are known for their uniqueness. The Vimana is having 13 stages. It reflects the Dravidian style of architecture. The primary deity linga is so huge in size and such a one could never be seen in any other shrine. It is made up of a single stone. The Nandhi installed in front of the main shrine (12 x 19 ½ x 8 ¼ ) is made of single stone. The paintings available in the temple depict the various postures in dance. The Tiruttorana Vayil or keralanthagan Vayil, the Tirumalingai Vayil are available in front of the temple. The Balasubramanya shrien is located within this temple.

The Gangaikonda Choleeswara temple constructed by Rajendra I is another monumental work of the chola period. It is more exquisite in its art work. This rectangular temple is 340 x 100. The main shrine is 100 in all the four sides. In the front of mandapa there are 140 pillars. The Vimana is 160 in heiht.

The medieval temples of the chola period are known for their architectural values. The towers wre known as gopuras. They serve as places for exhibiting the lengendary stories. The excellent stone mandapas such as ardha, muha mandapas are unique ones. The 1000 pillared hall of Chidambaram served as a stage for Sekkilar to publish his Periyapuranam.

Later chola period

This period witnessed further additions and developments. Raja Raja II’s Iyravadeswara temple of Dharasuram was an unique one of this period. This temple is also equal to the Tanjore Pragadeeswara temple. The mandapas and pillars are the revelations of the artistic qualities. Sundarar’s life sketch is drawn in the form of painting in this temple. The corbels are also of great artistic value. There are 36 shrines within this temple.

Kulottunga III’s Kambahareswara temple or Tribhuvana Vireswara temple is another work of artistic glory.

The chola sculptors were experts in their workmanship. They didi their best for the development of different images. They gave the forms to the descriptions of different deities by the Nayanmars and Alwars. The pillars, mandapas, temple walls, ceilings and roofs contain sculpture. The sculptors were given a free hand to produce images. They caused the development of iconography. The different figures of various deities available in the temple of the Cholas expose the contributions of the monarchs.

The bronze and copper icons attained greater perfection during the chola period. The images of Nataraja, Gradha murthi, Alingana murthi. Pitchadana are quite promising. The images of Subrahmanya, Uma etc too testify to the artistic value. The icons at places like Cheranmadevi, Thirukkadayur stand testimony to the superior nature of the chola architecture.

The age of cholas age was the one known for its painting. On the mortar plasterings paintings are done. After white washing colour paintings are carried out. Tampana style is used in painting. At Tanjore pragadeeswara temple the paintings are wonderful. Black, yellow, red, blue, green colours are used. They have adopted a specific technique in painting. Minute details of dress folding, eye balls etc., are wonderfully depicted. The paintings centre around religious thems. Sundaramurthy’s visit to Kailash is depicted in a wonderful manner. The beautiful sketches of the horse, elephant are worth noticing. Nyches, sages, dancing girls are all painted in a wonderful way.

The Cholas